the counter reformation was a religious and political movement that

Back then, Slovakia used to be a part of the Kingdom of Hungary. Calvinism was popular among the Hungarians who inhabited the southernmost parts of what is now Slovakia. letter correspondents, visits, former students) and trade routes.[46]. During the Reformation era, Moldova was repeatedly invaded. Protestant literature was produced at greater levels in cities where media markets were more competitive, making these cities more likely to adopt Protestantism. Experts often speak of a gradual process of realization between 1514 and 1518. Higher public spending on schooling and better educational performance of military conscripts. Translation of the Bible into German, French, English, and other languages. [22][23] Magdalena Heymair printed pedagogical writings for teaching children Bible stories. The Catholic Reformation was the movement within the Catholic Church to renew the doctrinal, spiritual, moral . As Queen of Navarre, Jeanne III commissioned the translation of the New Testament into Basque[d] and Barnese for the benefit of her subjects. The Habsburgs, who ruled Spain, Austria, the Crown of Bohemia, Hungary, Slovene Lands, the Spanish Netherlands and much of Germany and Italy, were staunch defenders of the Catholic Church. Reformation ideas and Protestant church services were first introduced in cities, being supported by local citizens and also some nobles. ", Walsham, Alexandra. The diversity of Reformation political thought also emerged over the issue of whether secular authorities should play a positive, even a leading role in the renewal of Christianity to which Protestant reformers were committed. [citation needed], Hus objected to some of the practices of the Roman Catholic Church and wanted to return the church in Bohemia and Moravia to earlier practices: liturgy in the language of the people (i.e. Henry strongly wanted a male heir, and many of his subjects might have agreed, if only because they wanted to avoid another dynastic conflict like the Wars of the Roses. The Reformation Parliament of 1560 repudiated the pope's authority by the Papal Jurisdiction Act 1560, forbade the celebration of the Mass and approved a Protestant Confession of Faith. Reform writers used existing styles, cliches and stereotypes which they adapted as needed. Protestant teachings were smuggled into Spain by Spaniards such as Julin Hernndez, who in 1557 was condemned by the Inquisition and burnt at the stake. Many Hussites thus declared themselves Lutherans. However few copies of Calvin's writings were available before mid-19th century.[68]. In contrast, Reformed cities typically secularised monastic property. [75] A significant community in France remained in the Cvennes region. In 1517, Luther nailed the Ninety-five theses to the Castle Church door, and without his knowledge or prior approval, they were copied and printed across Germany and internationally. Among the most important Protestants of the Commonwealth were Mikoaj Rej, Marcin Czechowic, Andrzej Frycz Modrzewski and Symon Budny. These missionaries dispersed Calvinism widely, and formed the French Huguenots in Calvin's own lifetime and spread to Scotland under the leadership of John Knox in 1560. Witch trials became more common in regions or other jurisdictions where Protestants and Catholics contested the religious market. Even later, Lutheranism gained a substantial following, after being permitted by the Habsburgs with the continued persecution of the Czech native Hussite churches. It is usually dated from the Council of Trent in 1545 to the end of the Great Turkish War in 1699, but according to some scholars, it continued afterwards and is ongoing in the present day. The English Reformation followed a different course from the Reformation in continental Europe. The Puritans objected to ornaments and ritual in the churches as idolatrous (vestments, surplices, organs, genuflection), calling the vestments "popish pomp and rags" (see Vestments controversy). Although Zwinglianism does hold uncanny resemblance to Lutheranism (it even had its own equivalent of the Ninety-five Theses, called the 67 Conclusions), historians have been unable to prove that Zwingli had any contact with Luther's publications before 1520, and Zwingli himself maintained that he had prevented himself from reading them. "[126], Partly due to Martin Luther's love for music, music became important in Lutheranism. Higher capability in reading, numeracy, essay writing, and history. The reformation wave swept first the Holy Roman Empire, and then extended beyond it to the rest of the European continent. [17][bettersourceneeded], Pope Sixtus IV (14711484) established the practice of selling indulgences to be applied to the dead, thereby establishing a new stream of revenue with agents across Europe. Movements had been made towards a Reformation prior to Martin Luther, so some Protestants, such as Landmark Baptists, and the tradition of the Radical Reformation prefer to credit the start of the Reformation to reformers such as Arnold of Brescia, Peter Waldo, John Wycliffe, Jan Hus, Petr Chelick, and Girolamo Savonarola. [12] In 1374, Catherine of Siena began travelling with her followers throughout northern and central Italy advocating reform of the clergy and advising people that repentance and renewal could be done through "the total love for God. Harsh persecution of Protestants by the Spanish government of Philip II contributed to a desire for independence in the provinces, which led to the Eighty Years' War and, eventually, the separation of the largely Protestant Dutch Republic from the Catholic-dominated Southern Netherlands (present-day Belgium). [83] He was the key figure of the Protestant Church of the Slovene Lands, as he was its founder and its first superintendent. In 1536, following his victory in the Count's War, he became king as Christian III and continued the Reformation of the state church with assistance from Johannes Bugenhagen. Oxford, United Kingdom: Oxford University Press, 2018. [citation needed], Word of the Protestant reformers reached Italy in the 1520s but never caught on. "Toleration, Pluralism, and Coexistence: The Ambivalent Legacies of the Reformation. The king was given possession of all church property, church appointments required royal approval, the clergy were subject to the civil law, and the "pure Word of God" was to be preached in the churches and taught in the schoolseffectively granting official sanction to Lutheran ideas. The Reformation also spread widely throughout Europe, starting with Bohemia, in the Czech lands, and, over the next few decades, to other countries. Let us know if you have suggestions to improve this article (requires login). Although Protestantism triumphed relatively easily in Scotland, the exact form of Protestantism remained to be determined. Some of these, like the use of local language as the liturgical language, were approved by the pope as early as in the 9th century. The first state to formally adopt a Protestant confession was the Duchy of Prussia (1525). The adoption of Lutheranism was also one of the main reasons for the eruption of the Dacke War, a peasants uprising in Smland. The Reformation was very insignificant in what is now Moldova and saw single congregations of Hussitism and Calvinism being founded across Besserabia. The Diet of Worms of May 1521 condemned Luther and officially banned citizens of the Holy Roman Empire from defending or propagating his ideas. In your own words, restate the advice Ronsard gives Helene in the last two lines of his poem. Transylvania in what is today's Romania was a "dumping ground for undesirables" by the Habsburg monarchy. This document outlined Luther's grievances with the Catholic Church, including their sale of indulgences, their corruption, and their lack of scriptural authority. It was more of a movement among the German people between 1517 and 1525, and then also a political one beginning in 1525. Besides the Waldensians already present in France, Protestantism also spread in from German lands, where the Protestants were nicknamed Huguenots; this eventually led to decades of civil warfare. In this act, Protestants denounced the Catholic Mass in placards that appeared across France, even reaching the royal apartments. Read More In the end, while the Reformation emphasis on Protestants reading the Scriptures was one factor in the development of literacy, the impact of printing itself, the wider availability of printed works at a cheaper price, and the increasing focus on education and learning as key factors in obtaining a lucrative post, were also significant contributory factors. The study and practice of music was encouraged in Protestant-majority countries. George Mason University's study on the fall of communism states, "Poland is, at first glance, one of the most religiously homogeneous countries on earth. In particular, the Thirty Years' War (16181648) devastated much of Germany, killing between 25% and 40% of its entire population. The veneration of some saints, certain pilgrimages and some pilgrim shrines were also attacked. As the number of Protestants in France increased, the number of heretics in prisons awaiting trial also grew. Littlejohn, Bradford, and Jonathan Roberts eds. In art history, the sixteenth century sees the styles we call the High Renaissance followed by Mannerism, andat the end of the centurythe emergence of the Baroque style.Naturally, these styles are all shaped by historical forces, the most significant being the Protestant Reformation's successful challenge to the spiritual and political power of the . But if you think modern life is more than an endless bad-tempered argument, you may concede that Luther's Reformation gave us a few useful, if largely, unexpected gifts. [citation needed], Refused an annulment of his marriage to Catherine, King Henry decided to remove the Church of England from the authority of Rome. The Reformation foundations engaged with Augustinianism. Simul justus et peccator implied that although people could improve, no one could become good enough to earn forgiveness from God. In 1666, the Sejm banned apostasy from Catholicism to any other religion, under penalty of death. After Habsburgs took control of the region, the Hussite churches were prohibited and the kingdom partially recatholicised. The Habsburg-sanctioned Counter-Reformation efforts in the 17th century reconverted the majority of the kingdom to Catholicism. While Lutheranism gained a foothold among the German- and Slovak-speaking populations, Calvinism became widely accepted among ethnic Hungarians. Ten years later, in 1568, the Diet extended this freedom, declaring that "It is not allowed to anybody to intimidate anybody with captivity or expulsion for his religion". Bagchi, David, and David C. Steinmetz, eds. Four religions were declared to be "accepted" (recepta) religions (the fourth being Unitarianism, which became official in 1583 as the faith of the only Unitarian king, John II Sigismund Zpolya, r. 15401571), while Eastern Orthodox Christianity was "tolerated" (though the building of stone Orthodox churches was forbidden). Several publishing houses were opened in Lesser Poland in the mid-16th century in such locations as Somniki and Rakw. Luxembourg, a part of the Spanish Netherlands, remained Catholic during the Reformation era because Protestantism was illegal until 1768. The document sparked a religious revolution across Europe and . On this Wikipedia the language links are at the top of the page across from the article title. Two churches with Hussite roots are now the second and third biggest churches among the largely agnostic peoples: Czech Brethren (which gave origin to the international church known as the Moravian Church) and the Czechoslovak Hussite Church. Despite these wars against Protestant, Orthodox, and Muslim neighbours, the Confederation of Warsaw held with one notable exception. Anabaptist movements were especially persecuted following the German Peasants' War. [53] Frederick's son, Christian, was openly Lutheran, which prevented his election to the throne upon his father's death. In the first half of the 16th century, the enormous PolishLithuanian Commonwealth was a country of many religions and Churches, including: Roman Catholics, Byzantine Orthodox, Armenian Oriental Orthodox, Ashkenazi Jews, Karaites, and Sunni Muslims. Which statement Best describes what happened if a German prince decided a state was Catholic in the late 1500s? Divergent work attitudes of Protestant and Catholics. [35] The publication of Luther's Bible was a decisive moment in the spread of literacy in early modern Germany,[31] and stimulated as well the printing and distribution of religious books and pamphlets. During the Reformation era Protestantism was unsuccessful in Portugal, as its spread was frustrated for similar reasons to those in Spain. [31] Luther's translation of the Bible promoted the development of non-local forms of language and exposed all speakers to forms of German from outside their own area. [71][72] When Henry II took the throne in 1547, the persecution of Protestants grew and special courts for the trial of heretics were also established in the Parlement de Paris. [32][b][22][34] Luther's translation of the Bible into High German (the New Testament was published in 1522; the Old Testament was published in parts and completed in 1534) was also decisive for the German language and its evolution from Early New High German to Modern Standard German. Counter-Reformation used both coercion and institutional reform to retain its ecclesiastical control of Christendom. In 2019, Christos Yannaras told Norman Russell that although he had participated in the Zo movement, he had come to regard it as Crypto-Protestant.[85]. The Reformation in Scotland's case culminated ecclesiastically in the establishment of a church along reformed lines, and politically in the triumph of English influence over that of France. Profound social and political changes were taking place in the West, with the awakening of . [15] Wycliffe was posthumously condemned as a heretic and his corpse exhumed and burned in 1428. Both Catholics and Orthodox Christians converts became Calvinists and the Anti-Trinitarians. Lutheranism found few adherents among the other peoples of the two countries. Until the 1960s, historians focused their attention largely on the great leaders and theologians of the 16th century, especially Luther, Calvin, and Zwingli. [56] In 1538, when the kingly decree of the new Church ordinance reached Iceland, bishop gmundur and his clergy denounced it, threatening excommunication for anyone subscribing to the German "heresy". Improved training and education for some Roman Catholic priests. Sacramental theology was simplified and attempts at imposing Aristotelian epistemology were resisted. The initial movement in Germany diversified, and other reformers arose independently of Luther such as Zwingli in Zrich and John Calvin in Geneva. In October another thirty were executed. Southern Europe remained predominantly Catholic apart from the much-persecuted Waldensians. The Catholic Reformation was a religious movement that transpired in the 1500s throughout Europe. While in the middle of the 16th century the nobility mostly sent their sons abroad for education (the new German Protestant universities were important in this regard), by the mid-1600s the nobility mostly stayed home for education. [53] In 1526, Frederick forbade papal investiture of bishops in Denmark and in 1527 ordered fees from new bishops be paid to the crown, making Frederick the head of the church of Denmark. [citation needed], Luther and his followers did not see these theological developments as changes. historians believe that the era of the Reformation came to a close when Catholic France allied itself with Protestant states against the Habsburg dynasty. Historians began to concentrate on the values, beliefs and behavior of the people at large. The term Counter-Reformationdenotes the period of Catholicrevival from the pontificate of Pope Pius IVin 1560 to the close of the Thirty Years' War, 1648. Both Luther and Calvin thought along lines linked with the theological teachings of Augustine of Hippo. At one point in history[when? The Reformation in western and central Europe officially began in 1517 with Martin Luther and his 95 Theses. i. Henry VIII broke with the Catholic Church. It is also considered to be one of the events that signified the end of the Middle Ages and the beginning of the early modern period in Europe.[2]. Sigismund, who was also the King of Sweden until deposed, was educated by Jesuits in Sweden before his election as King of the PolishLithuanian Commonwealth. This challenge to Papal supremacy resulted in a breach with the Roman Catholic Church. Today, we call this "Roman Catholic" because there are so many other types of churches (for example . The presence of monasteries made the adoption of Protestantism less likely. The 17th century saw a complex struggle between Presbyterianism (particularly the Covenanters) and Episcopalianism. Under Philip II, conservatives in the Spanish church tightened their grip, and those who refused to recant such as Rodrigo de Valer were condemned to life imprisonment.

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